Composition and method for forming a dielectric layer

ABSTRACT

A porous layer is described. The porous layer comprises a solidified sol-gel inorganic material having a distribution of nanometric voids, wherein at least some of nanometric voids are at least partially coated internally by carbon or a hydrophobic substance containing carbon.

RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application No. 61/643,832 filed May 7, 2012, the contents ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention, in some embodiments thereof, relates to a sol-gelprocess to and, more particularly, but not exclusively, to a compositionsuitable for use in a sol-gel process, e.g., for the fabrication of alayer having a reduced dielectric constant.

In the constant advancement of integrated circuit (IC) technology, it isdesired to scale down of IC dimensions, so as to increase speed anddensity of the chip device. The speed of an electrical signal in an ICrelies on the switching time of an individual transistor (transistorgate delay) and the signal propagation time between transistors(Resistance-Capacitance delay, known as the RC delay). As transistorfeatures continue to diminish in size and density continues to increase,the RC delay that was once known to have least impact has now startedplaying a prominent role in chip performance. RC delay can be reduced byusing high conductivity metals in interconnect wiring to lower theresistance (for example, Cu metallization instead of Al metallization),and/or by using materials having a low dielectric constant k in theinter-level dielectric layers to reduce the capacitance. Aside fromreducing RC delay, low-k dielectric materials enable consumption of lesspower and reduce capacitive coupling, also known as crosstalk, betweeninterconnect features.

Different approaches were developed and implemented in industry todecrease the dielectric constant of the interlayer dielectrics anddifferent materials were used for this purpose. The first low-kdielectrics that were applied in industry were fluorinated silicaglasses (FSG). FSG are typically not porous. They have a dense structuresimilar to silicon dioxide layers. SiO2 layers employed as isolatingdielectric in IC have tetrahedral basic structure, where each Si atom isbonded to four oxygen atoms, and each oxygen atom to two silicon atoms.The high frequency dielectric constant at practical IC frequencies (upto THz) is about 4 and is associated with the polarizability of the Si—Obonds. To lower this value, the Si—O bonds have been proposed to bepartially substituted with less polarizable Si—F bonds. Another optionis to dope the silica glass with carbon, by introducing CH3 groupsinstead of O atoms. Both fluorine and carbon also increase theinter-atomic distances in silica, so that the density therefore also thedielectric constant is decreased. Such materials have characteristicdielectric constants of from about 3.2 to about 3.6.

Another class of low-k dielectrics are hydrogen and methylsilsesquioxanes (HSQ and MHQ) having a structure in which Hydrogen orCH3 radicals are connected to silicon atoms forming cage structures.Silsesquioxanes are organic-inorganic to polymers with the presence ofcage structures in the form of voids surrounded by eight silicon atoms.SiH and Si—CH3 have lower dielectric constant than Si—O since theirpolarizability is lower and since their micro-hollows make their volumedensity relatively small. The dielectric constants of HSQ and MSQ aretypically 3.2 and 2.8, respectively.

Another known technique for reduction the value of the dielectricconstant k is the use of porous dielectric layers. These layers areprovided with pores having sizes which are typically larger than thoseallowed by the aforementioned cage structure. The typical pores in aporous dielectric layers are from several tens to several hundreds ofangstroms. Since the dielectric constant of air is 1, the dielectricconstant of a layer decreases with its porosity.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,895,263 discloses a process for forming a dielectricmaterial for IC. The dielectric material is a porous organic polysilicahaving pore sizes less than 1000 angstroms. The obtained film has adielectric constant less than 2.8.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,265,062, for example, discloses a process for formingporous silicon oxide-based films using a sol-gel approach utilizing aprecursor solution formulation, including a purified non-ionicsurfactant and an additive. The additive includes tetraalkylammoniumsalts and amines. The obtained film has a dielectric constant less than2.5.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to an aspect of some embodiments of the present inventionthere is provided a porous layer. The porous layer comprises asolidified sol-gel inorganic material having a distribution ofnanometric voids, wherein at least some of nanometric voids are at leastpartially coated internally by carbon or a hydrophobic substancecontaining carbon.

According to an aspect of some embodiments of the present inventionthere is provided an integrated circuit, comprising at least onedielectric layer, wherein the dielectric layer is the porous layer asdelineated above and optionally and preferably as further detailedhereinbelow.

According to some embodiments of the invention at least 70% of the voidsare closed.

According to some embodiments of the invention at least 70% of the voidsare isolated from other voids.

According to some embodiments of the invention at least 80% of thenanometric voids are generally spherical.

According to some embodiments of the invention an average size of thenanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is less than 10 nmAccording to some embodiments of the invention an average size of thenanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is less than 5 nmAccording to some embodiments of the invention an average size of thenanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is from about 2 nmto about 5 nm.

According to some embodiments of the invention a variance in a size ofthe nanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is less than 2nm².

According to some embodiments of the invention the porous layercharacterized by a dielectric constant which is less than 2.5.

According to an aspect of some embodiments of the present inventionthere is provided a composition. The comprising comprises a sol-gelprecursor and a mixture of discrete nanoparticles of biological materialin a medium that at least partially prevents assembly of thenanoparticles into supramolecular or colloidal structures.

According to an aspect of some embodiments of the present inventionthere is provided a method of forming a porous layer. The methodcomprises coating a substrate with the composition, drying thecomposition, and treating the dried composition so as to decompose thenanoparticles, thereby forming voids in the dried composition.

According to some embodiments of the invention the treating comprisesapplying a thermal treatment.

According to some embodiments of the invention the thermal treatmentcomprises calcination.

According to some embodiments of the invention the treating comprisesapplying optical radiation.

According to some embodiments of the invention the optical radiation isultraviolet radiation.

According to some embodiments of the invention the method comprises topassivating internal walls of the voids such that the walls arehydrophobic.

According to some embodiments of the invention the method comprisespreparing the composition.

According to some embodiments of the invention the preparing comprisesmixing the mixture with a solution containing the sol-gel precursor.According to some embodiments of the invention the solution comprises atleast one component selected for at least partially preventing theassembly.

According to some embodiments of the invention the at least onecomponent comprises a polar organic solvent.

According to some embodiments of the invention at least 70% of thediscrete nanoparticles are generally spherical.

According to some embodiments of the invention a largest dimension of atleast 70% of the discrete nanoparticles is less than 500 nm According tosome embodiments of the invention a largest dimension of at least 70% ofthe discrete nanoparticles is less than 100 nm. According to someembodiments of the invention a largest dimension of at least 70% of thediscrete nanoparticles is less than 5 nm.

According to some embodiments of the invention the discretenanoparticles comprise peptide nanoparticles.

According to some embodiments of the invention the discretenanoparticles comprise protein nanoparticles.

According to some embodiments of the invention the discretenanoparticles comprise viruses.

According to some embodiments of the invention the discretenanoparticles comprise ferritin.

According to some embodiments of the invention a concentration of thediscrete nanoparticles in the composition is from about 50% to about 95%by volume.

According to some embodiments of the invention the sol-gel precursor isan orthosilicate sol-gel precursor.

According to some embodiments of the invention the silicate sol-gelprecursor comprises tetraethylorthosilicate.

According to some embodiments of the invention the sol-gel precursorcomprises a silsesquioxane.

According to some embodiments of the invention the silsesquioxane isselected from the group consisting of a hydrogen silsesquioxane, amethyl silsesquioxane, and a silsesquioxane copolymer.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and/or scientific terms usedherein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinaryskill in the art to which the invention pertains. Although methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used inthe practice or testing of embodiments of the invention, exemplarymethods and/or materials are described below. In case of conflict, thepatent specification, including definitions, will control. In addition,the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and are notintended to be necessarily limiting.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Some embodiments of the invention are herein described, by way ofexample only, with reference to the accompanying drawings.

With specific reference now to the drawings in detail, it is stressedthat the particulars shown are by way of example and for purposes ofillustrative discussion of embodiments of the invention. In this regard,the description taken with the drawings makes apparent to those skilledin the art how embodiments of the invention may be practiced.

In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is a flowchart diagram of a method suitable for forming a porouslayer, according to some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of an integrated circuit, accordingto some embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration an integrated circuit in anembodiment of the invention in which the integrated circuit is an imagesensor; and

FIG. 4 is another flowchart diagram further illustrating a methodsuitable for forming a porous layer, according to some embodiments ofthe present invention.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

The present invention, in some embodiments thereof, relates to a sol-gelprocess to and, more particularly, but not exclusively, to a compositionsuitable for use in a sol-gel process, e.g., for the fabrication of alayer having a reduced dielectric constant.

Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, itis to be understood that the invention is not necessarily limited in itsapplication to the details of construction and the arrangement of thecomponents and/or methods set forth in the following description and/orillustrated in the drawings and/or the Examples. The invention iscapable of other embodiments or of being practiced or carried out invarious ways.

Some embodiments of the present invention provide a composition, havinga sol-gel precursor and discrete organic nanoparticles. The compositionis optionally and preferably in liquid form.

As used herein and in the art, the phrase “sol-gel precursor” describesa polymerizable compound that, when in solution, can undergo asol-to-gel transformation to thereby produce a solidified sol-gelmaterial.

The phrase “solidified sol-gel material” describes the product obtainedupon polymerizing a sol-gel precursor in solution, optionally uponremoval of the solvent.

In a sol-gel process molecules of the sol-gel precursor are dissolved ina suitable solvent and are thereafter subjected to conditions thateffect sol-to-gel transformation. Such conditions are typically mildconditions (e.g., around room temperature, slightly acidic/basic pH,etc.). The sol-to-gel transformation typically involves polymerizationof the sol-gel precursor, whereby the polymerization typically involveshydrolysis and condensation reactions. At the end of the sol-to-geltransformation, a biphasic material is obtained. This material iscomposed of a solid network of a polymer obtained by polymerization ofthe sol-gel precursor, in which the solvent is entrapped. Removal of thesolvent results in a solidified sol-gel material. Removal of the solventcan be effected by any method known in the art, including solventevaporation (at ambient pressure, or under reduced pressure, in thepresence or absence of surface active agents) and critical point drying(CPD).

The sol-gel precursor can be, for example, a metal alkoxide monomer, asemi-metal alkoxide monomer, a metal ester monomer, a semi-metal estermonomer, a silazane monomer, a monomer having the formula M(R)n(P)m,whereas M is a metal or a semi metal, R is a hydrolyzable substituent, nis an integer from 2 to 6, P is a non-polymerizable substituent and m isand integer from 0 to 6, a partially hydrolyzed polymer thereof, apartially condensed polymer thereof and a combination thereof.

The metal M can be, for example, Si, Ti, Zr, Ni, Al and Zn. Preferably,the sol-gel precursor includes inorganic silica monomers such as, forexample, tetraalkoxysilanes (e.g., tetramethoxysilane,tetraethoxysilane, etc.) or organically-modified silica monomers havingthe formula M(R)n(P)m described hereinabove, where M is Si.

An inorganic sol-gel material is obtained from sol-gel precursors asdescribed herein, in which the monomer has the formula M(R)n(P)m, inwhich m=0 and n is determined by the valence of M, and include, forexample, a metal alkoxide monomer, a semi-metal alkoxide monomer, ametal ester monomer, a semi-metal ester monomer, a silazane monomer.

A solidified inorganic sol-gel material is typically obtained uponpolymerization of the sol-gel precursor and thereafter removal of thesolvent as described herein. In some embodiments of the presentinvention the sol-gel precursor comprises tetraethylorthosilicate(corresponding to tetraethoxysilane wherein m=0 and R=ethoxy), and insome embodiments of the present invention the sol-gel precursorcomprises a silsesquioxane (such as, but not limited to, hydrogensilsesquioxane, methyl silsesquioxane, silsesquioxane copolymer).

As used herein “nanoparticle” refers to a particle having a largestdimension less than 1 μm, preferably less than 500 nm, more preferablyless than 100 nm, more preferably less than 50 nm, more preferably lessthan 10 nm, more preferably less than 5 nm, e.g., from about 2 nm toabout 5 nm or from about 2 nm to about 4 nm or from about 2 nm to about3 nm.

In some embodiments of the present invention the largest dimension of X% of the nanoparticles is less than 500 nm, more preferably less than100 nm, more preferably less than 50 nm, more preferably less than 10nm, more preferably less than 5 nm, e.g., from about 2 nm to about 5 nm,or from about 2 nm to about 4 nm, or from about 2 nm to about 3 nm,where X is at least 70 or at least 80 or at least 90 or at least 95 orat least 99.

As used herein, “organic nanoparticle” refers to a nanoparticle made atleast in to part of organic substance. As used herein, the phrase“organic substance” describes any substance that comprises carbon andhydrogen atoms, with or without additional elements.

The nanoparticles can have any shape. In various exemplary embodimentsof the invention the nanoparticles are generally spherical.

As used herein “generally spherical” refers to a shape characterized bya sphericity of at least 0.7, more preferably at least 0.8 morepreferably at least 0.9, e.g., 0.95 or 1.

The sphericity of an object is defined as the ratio between the surfacearea of a sphere having the same volume as the object and the surfacearea of the object.

For nanometric objects, it is oftentimes more convenient to estimate theaverage sphericity of a plurality of objects using a two-dimensionalimage (typically an electron microscope image) of the objects, whereinthe orientations of the objects vary statistically thereamongst. Fromthe two-dimensional image, the dimensions of each object across twodirections parallel to the image plane (e.g., the largest dimension andsmallest dimensions, or the largest dimension and the dimension along adirection orthogonal to the largest dimension, or the smallest dimensionand the dimension along a direction orthogonal to the largest dimension)can be measured. An aspect ratio can then be calculated for each objectas the ratio between the smaller measured dimension and the largermeasured dimension, and the sphericity can be estimated as this ratio.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention at least 70% or atleast 80% or at least 90% or at least 95% or at least 99% of thenanoparticles are generally spherical.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention X % of thenanoparticles are characterized by an aspect ratio of at least 0.7, morepreferably at least 0.8 more preferably at least 0.9, e.g., 0.95 or 1,where X is at least 70 at least 80 or at least 90 or at least 95 or atleast 99.

In some embodiments of the present invention the organic materialcomprises a biological material, more preferably chemically-synthesizedbiological material.

The terms “biological material” are used interchangeably herein to referto any organic material, including a single organic molecule, that is,was, or can be a part of a living organism, regardless of whether themolecule is naturally occurring, recombinantly produced, or chemicallysynthesized in whole or in part.

It was found by the present inventors that the use of biomolecules isadvantageous over existing compositions which lead to large dispersionof pore sizes.

Classes of biomolecules suitable for the present embodiments include,without limitation nucleic acids (and artificial analogs thereof),peptides, lipids, polysaccharides, monosaccharides, amino acids,nucleotides (as well as nucleosides, purines and pyrimidines),flavonoids, isoprenoids, oligomeric species, polymeric species andviruses.

Also contemplated, are oligonucleotides, genes, hormones, growthfactors, enzymes, co-factors, antisenses, antibodies, antigens,vitamins, immunoglobulins, cytokines, prostaglandins, toxins, ferritinsand the like. In some embodiments of the present invention thenanoparticles comprise at least one of peptides, nucleic acids,nucleotides and amino acids. Of the above substances, substances whosemolecular shape is generally spherical are useful when it is desired tohave generally spherical nanoparticles.

The term “peptide” as used herein encompasses native peptides (eitherdegradation products, synthetically synthesized peptides or recombinantpeptides) and peptidomimetics (typically, synthetically synthesizedpeptides), as well as peptoids and semipeptoids which are peptideanalogs, which may have, for example, modifications rendering thepeptides more stable while in a body. Such modifications include, butare not limited to N terminus modification, C terminus modification,peptide bond modification, including, but not limited to, CH₂—NH, CH₂—S,CH₂—S═O, O═C—NH, CH₂—O, CH₂—CH₂, S═C—NH, CH═CH or CF═CH, backbonemodifications, and residue modification. Methods for preparingpeptidomimetic compounds are well known in the art and are specified,for example, in Quantitative Drug Design, C.A. Ramsden Gd., Chapter17.2, F. Choplin Pergamon Press (1992), which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein. Further details in this respectare provided hereinunder.

Peptide bonds (—CO—NH—) within the peptide may be substituted, forexample, by N-methylated bonds (—N(CH₃)—CO—), ester bonds(—C(R)H—C—O—O—C(R)—N—), ketomethylen bonds (—CO—CH₂—), α-aza bonds(—NH—N(R)—CO—), wherein R is any alkyl, e.g., methyl, carba bonds(—CH₂—NH—), hydroxyethylene bonds (—CH(OH)—CH₂—), thioamide bonds(—CS—NH—), olefinic double bonds (—CH═CH—), retro amide bonds (—NH—CO—),peptide derivatives (—N(R)—CH₂—CO—), wherein R is the “normal” sidechain, naturally presented on the carbon atom.

These modifications can occur at any of the bonds along the peptidechain and even at several (2-3) at the same time.

As used herein the phrase “amino acid” or “amino acids” is understood toinclude the 20 naturally occurring amino acids; those amino acids oftenmodified post-translationally in vivo, including, for example,hydroxyproline, phosphoserine and phosphothreonine; and other unusualamino acids including, but not limited to, 2-aminoadipic acid,hydroxylysine, isodesmosine, nor-valine, nor-leucine and ornithine.Furthermore, the term “amino acid” includes both D- and L-amino acids.

Natural aromatic amino acids, Trp, Tyr and Phe, may be substituted forsynthetic non-natural acid such as Phenylglycine, TIC, napthylalanine(Nal), phenylisoserine, threoninol, ring-methylated derivatives of Phe,halogenated derivatives of Phe or O-methyl-Tyr and β-amino acids.

The peptides of the present embodiments may include one or more modifiedamino acids or one or more non-amino acid monomers (e.g. fatty acids,complex carbohydrates etc).

The peptides can include aromatic and/or non-aromatic amino acidresidue.

The phrase “aromatic amino acid residue”, as used herein, describes anamino acid residue that has an aromatic moiety, as defined herein, inits side-chain.

In some embodiments each of the peptides comprises the amino acidsequence X-Y or Y-X, wherein X is an aromatic amino acid residue and Yis any other amino acid residue. Use of peptides which are devoid ofaromatic amino acid residues is also contemplated.

The peptides of the present invention can be a single amino acid or apeptide composed of at least 2 amino acids in length.

In some embodiments of the present invention, one or several of thepeptides is a polyaromatic peptide, which comprises one, two or morearomatic amino acid residues.

As used herein the phrase “polyaromatic peptides” refers to peptideswhich include at least 80%, more preferably at least 85%, morepreferably at least 90%, more preferably at least 95% or more aromaticamino acid residues. In some embodiments, at least one peptide consistsessentially of aromatic amino acid residues. In some embodiments, eachpeptide consists essentially of aromatic amino acid residues.

Thus for example, the peptides can include any combination of:dipeptides composed of one or two aromatic amino acid residues;tripeptides including one, two or three aromatic amino acid residues;and tetrapeptides including two, three or four aromatic amino acidresidues and so on.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the aromatic amino acidare any naturally occurring or synthetic aromatic residue including, butnot limited to, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylglycine, ormodificants, precursors or functional aromatic portions thereof.

In some embodiments, one or more peptides include two amino acidresidues, and hence is a dipeptide.

Each of these dipeptides can include one or two aromatic amino acidresidues.

Preferably, but not obligatorily each of these dipeptides includes twoaromatic amino acid residues. The aromatic residues composing thedipeptide can be the same, such that the dipeptide is a homodipeptide,or different. In some embodiments, the nanostructures are formed fromhomodipeptides.

Hence, in some embodiments each peptide is a homodipeptide composed oftwo aromatic amino acid residues that are identical with respect totheir side-chains residue.

The aromatic amino acid residues can comprise an aromatic moiety, wherethe phrase “aromatic moiety” describes a monocyclic or polycyclic moietyhaving a completely conjugated pi-electron system. The aromatic moietycan be an all-carbon moiety or can include one or more heteroatoms suchas, for example, nitrogen, sulfur or oxygen. The aromatic moiety can besubstituted or unsubstituted, whereby when substituted, the substituentcan be, for example, one or more of alkyl, trihaloalkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroalicyclic, halo, nitro,azo, hydroxy, alkoxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, cyano and amine.

Exemplary aromatic moieties include, for example, phenyl, biphenyl,naphthalenyl, phenanthrenyl, anthracenyl, [1,10]phenanthrolinyl,indoles, thiophenes, thiazoles and, [2,2]bipyridinyl, each beingoptionally substituted. Thus, representative examples of aromaticmoieties that can serve as the side chain within the aromatic amino acidresidues described herein include, without limitation, substituted orunsubstituted naphthalenyl, substituted or unsubstituted phenanthrenyl,substituted or unsubstituted anthracenyl, substituted or unsubstituted[1,10]phenanthrolinyl, substituted or unsubstituted [2,2]bipyridinyl,substituted or unsubstituted biphenyl and substituted or unsubstitutedphenyl.

The aromatic moiety can alternatively be substituted or unsubstitutedheteroaryl such as, for example, indole, thiophene, imidazole, oxazole,thiazole, pyrazole, pyridine, pyrimidine, quinoline, isoquinoline,quinazoline, quinoxaline, and purine. When substituted, the phenyl,naphthalenyl or any other aromatic moiety includes one or moresubstituents such as, but not limited to, alkyl, trihaloalkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroalicyclic, halo, nitro,azo, hydroxy, alkoxy, thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, cyano, and amine.

Representative examples of homodipeptides that can be used to form thenanostructures of the present embodiments include, without limitation, anaphthylalanine-naphthylalanine dipeptide,phenanthrenylalanine-phenanthrenylalanine dipeptide,anthracenylalanine-anthracenylalanine dipeptide,[1,10]phenanthrolinylalanine-[1,1]phenanthrolinylalanine dipeptide,[2,2]bipyridinylalanine-[2,2]bipyridinylalanine dipeptide,(pentahalo-phenylalanine)-(pentahalo-phenylalanine)dipeptide,phenylalanine-phenylalanine dipeptide,(amino-phenylalanine)-(amino-phenylalanine)dipeptide,(dialkylamino-phenylalanine)-(dialkylamino-phenylalanine)dipeptide,(halophenylalanine)-(halophenylalanine)dipeptide,(alkoxy-phenylalanine)-(alkoxy-phenylalanine)dipeptide,(trihalomethyl-phenylalanine)-(trihalomethyl-phenylalanine)dipeptide,(4-phenyl-phenylalanine)-(4-phenyl-phenylalanine)dipeptide and(nitro-phenylalanine)-(nitro-phenylalanine)dipeptide.

In some embodiments of the present invention one or more of the peptidesis modified by end-capping.

The phrase “end-capping modified peptide”, as used herein, refers to apeptide which has been modified at the N-(amine)terminus and/or at theC-(carboxyl)terminus thereof. The end-capping modification refers to theattachment of a chemical moiety to the terminus, so as to form a cap.Such a chemical moiety is referred to herein as an end-capping moietyand is typically also referred to herein and in the art,interchangeably, as a peptide protecting moiety or group.

The phrase “end-capping moiety”, as used herein, refers to a moiety thatwhen attached to the terminus of the peptide, modifies the end-capping.The end-capping modification typically results in masking the charge ofthe peptide terminus, and/or altering chemical features thereof, suchas, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, reactivity, solubility and the like.Examples of moieties suitable for peptide end-capping modification canbe found, for example, in Green et al., “Protective Groups in OrganicChemistry”, (Wiley, second ed. 1991) and Harrison et al., “Compendium ofSynthetic Organic Methods”, Vols. 1-8 (John Wiley and Sons, 1971-1996).

The use of end-capping modification, allows to control the chemicalproperties and charge of the nanostructures. End-capping of a peptidecan be used to modify its hydrophobic/hydrophilic nature.

Representative examples of N-terminus end-capping moieties suitable forthe present embodiments include, but are not limited to, formyl, acetyl(also denoted herein as “Ac”), trifluoroacetyl, benzyl,benzyloxycarbonyl (also denoted herein as “Cbz”), tert-butoxycarbonyl(also denoted herein as “Boc”), trimethylsilyl (also denoted “TMS”),2-trimethylsilyl-ethanesulfonyl (also denoted “SES”), trityl andsubstituted trityl groups, allyloxycarbonyl,9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (also denoted herein as “Fmoc”), andnitro-veratryloxycarbonyl (“NVOC”).

Representative examples of C-terminus end-capping moieties suitable forthe present embodiments are typically moieties that lead to acylation ofthe carboxy group at the C-terminus and include, but are not limited to,benzyl and trityl ethers as well as alkyl ethers, tetrahydropyranylethers, trialkylsilyl ethers, allyl ethers, monomethoxytrityl anddimethoxytrityl. Alternatively the —COOH group of the C-terminusend-capping may be modified to an amide group.

Other end-capping modifications of peptides include replacement of theamine and/or carboxyl with a different moiety, such as hydroxyl, thiol,halide, alkyl, aryl, alkoxy, aryloxy and the like, as these terms aredefined herein.

In some embodiments of the present invention, all of the peptides thatare used for coating are end-capping modified.

End-capping moieties can be further classified by their aromaticity.Thus, end-capping moieties can be aromatic or non-aromatic.

Representative examples of non-aromatic end capping moieties suitablefor N-terminus modification include, without limitation, formyl, acetyltrifluoroacetyl, tert-butoxycarbonyl, trimethylsilyl, and2-trimethylsilyl-ethanesulfonyl. Representative examples of non-aromaticend capping moieties suitable for C-terminus modification include,without limitation, amides, allyloxycarbonyl, trialkylsilyl ethers andallyl ethers.

Representative examples of aromatic end capping moieties suitable forN-terminus modification include, without limitation,fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl (Fmoc). Representative examples of aromaticend capping moieties suitable for C-terminus modification include,without limitation, benzyl, benzyloxycarbonyl (Cbz), trityl andsubstituted trityl groups.

When dipeptides are employed, they can be collectively represented bythe following general Formula I:

where:

C* is a chiral or non-chiral carbon; R₁ and R₂ are each independentlyselected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl,carboxy, thiocarboxy, C-carboxylate and C-thiocarboxylate; R₃ isselected from the group consisting of hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy,thiohydroxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, halo and amine; and each of R₄-R₇is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl,cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroalicyclic, hydroxy,thiohydroxy(thiol), alkoxy, aryloxy, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy,C-carboxylate, C-thiocarboxylate, N-carbamate, N-thiocarbamate,hydrazine, guanyl, and guanidine, as these terms are defined herein,provided that at least one of R₄-R₇ comprises an aromatic moiety, asdefined hereinabove.

Also contemplated are embodiments in which one or more of R₄-R₇ is othersubstituent, provided that at least one comprises an aromatic moiety.

Also contemplated are embodiments in which one or more of R₁-R₃ is theend-capping moieties described hereinabove.

Depending on the substituents, each of the C* carbon atoms in each ofthe compounds described above, can be chiral or non-chiral. Any chiralcarbon atom that is to present in the peptides of the presentembodiments can be in D-configuration, L-configuration or racemic. Thus,the present embodiments encompass any combination of chiral and racemiccarbon atoms, including all the possible stereoisomers, optical isomers,enantiomers, and anomers. The peptides of the present embodiments can besynthesized while retaining a configuration of the reactants (e.g., theamino acids). Hence, by selecting the configuration of the reactants(e.g., amino acids) and the appropriate syntheses conditions, theoptical purity (e.g., the inclusion of chiral and/or racemic carbons)and the obtained stereoisomers of the resulting peptides can bedetermined. In cases where racemic mixtures are obtained, knowntechniques can be used to separate the optical or stereo-isomers. Suchtechniques are described, for example, in “Organic chemistry, fourthEdition by Paula Yurkanis Bruice, page 180-185 and page 214, PrenticeHall, Upper Sadde River, N.J. 07458.”

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention the nanoparticles areformed from no more than two molecules of the biological material. Forexample, the nanoparticles can be dipeptides, e.g., NH2-Phe-Phe-COOHdipeptides and/or NH3-Phe-Trp-COOH dipeptides.

It is to be understood, however that the use of nanoparticles made ofmore than two molecules is not excluded from the scope of the presentinvention. For example, the nanoparticles can be tripeptides, e.g., Boctriphenylalanine or the like.

The discrete organic nanoparticles of the present embodiments arepreferably present in the sol-gel precursor under conditions that atleast partially prevent assembly of the nanoparticles intosupramolecular or colloidal structures.

As used herein “supramolecular structure” refers to any structurecomposed of sub-units connected via non-covalent interaction.

The term supramolecular structure encompasses at least any of thefollowing structures: nanotube, nanowire, nanosphere, nanorod, nanodisk,nanotape and hydrogel.

Thus, the nanoparticles according to some exemplary embodiments of theinvention are “elementary building blocks” of supramolecular structureseach being composed of a plurality of nanoparticles bound to each otherby non-covalent bonds (e.g., weak bonds such as H-bonds and bondsmaintained by Van der Waals forces).

The nanoparticles are “elementary” in the sense that that they cannot beto disassembled into their constituents, unless their covalent bonds arebroken by supplying energy which at least equals their covalent bondenergies. Although being elementary building blocks, the nanoparticlesof the present embodiments preferably remain discrete, since they arenot assembled into supramolecular or colloidal structures.

Nanoparticles which are not assembled into a supramolecular or colloidalstructure are referred to herein as “discrete nanoparticle”. In variousexemplary embodiments of the invention at least 70%, or at least 80% orat least 90% or at least 95%, preferably 99% or more of thenanoparticles in the composition are in the form of discretenanoparticles.

Discrete nanoparticles can be provided in more than one way.

In some embodiments, the discrete nanoparticles are provided asnon-assembled particles. In these embodiments the raw material used forthe preparation of composition includes non-assembled nanoparticles.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a top-down process isemployed for providing the discrete nanoparticles. In these embodimentsthe addition of nanoparticles to the sol-gel precursor is preceded bythe top-down process to provide the discrete nanoparticles. The top downprocess can be a chemical process. For example, supramolecular orcolloidal structures can be treated in inorganic solution (e.g.,sulfuric acids of sufficiently low pH useful for disassembling, forexample, peptide supramolecular structures), or organic solution (e.g.,hexafluoro-2-propanol useful for disassembling, for example, peptidesupramolecular structures). The top-down process can also be amechanical process, e.g., treatment by ultrasound waves or the like.Also contemplated is optical disassembling wherein supramolecular orcolloidal structures are irradiated with an optical field, such as UVlight or the like.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the discrete nanoparticlesare formed by a bottom-up process. For example, a peptide materialincluding peptide oligomers can be provided and conditions can begenerated for to allow the oligomers to form discrete peptidenanoparticles. The formation of peptide nanoparticles from oligomersoptionally and preferably precedes the addition of the particles to thesol-gel precursor.

Also contemplated are embodiments in which amino acid molecules areprovided to as nanoparticles. In these embodiments, the amino acidsfirst form peptide oligomers by dimerization, trimerization,tetramization and/or multimerization. This is optionally and preferablyaccomplished using an appropriate multimerization agent, such as, butnot limited to, one or more fusion molecules. Thereafter, the peptideoligomers form the nanoparticles as further detailed hereinabove. Thenanoparticles can then be added to the sol-gel precursor solution.Alternatively, the amino acid molecules can be added to the sol-gelprecursor, in which case the amino acid molecules either enact thenanoparticles or they can form oligomers in-situ while being in thesol-gel precursor solution.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention the nanoparticles areintroduced into a medium that prevents them from being assembled intosupramolecular or colloidal structures. A representative example of suchmedium is a polar organic solvent, and preferably a protic polar organicsolvent. Examples include, but are not limited to, an alcohol having theformula ROH, where R represents an alkyl group, in particular a linearor branched alkyl group having 1-20 carbon atoms, more preferably alower alkyl group having 1-4 carbon atoms, e.g., methanol, ethanol,propanol, isopropanol and butanol; and an acid of the formula RC(═O)OH,where R represents hydrogen, an alkyl group, in particular a linear orbranched alkyl group having 1-20 carbon atoms, more preferably a loweralkyl group having 1-4 carbon atoms, e.g., acetic acid, ethanoic acid,propanoic acid, etc. The medium is preferably also used for diluting thesol-gel precursor prior to the addition of the particles thereto.

The concentration of the nanoparticles in the composition of the presentembodiments is preferably from about 50% to about 95% or from about 60%to about 95% from about 70% to about 95% from about 80% to about 95%from about 90% to about 95% by volume.

The present inventors found that the composition of the presentembodiments is advantageous over conventional composition, particularlywhen it is desired to fabricate porous dielectric layers for integratedcircuits, using the nanoparticles of the present embodiments as porogenparticles.

As used herein, the term “porous” describes a solid structure having adistribution of discontinuities in the material from which the structureis made, wherein the size of the discontinuities is larger than thecharacteristic largest lattice constant of the structure.

As used herein, the term “porous layer” refers to a layer, such as, butnot limited to, a layer of an integrated circuit, which is in the formof a porous structure. Typically, a porous layer is deposited on asubstrate, such as, but not limited to, a base substrate of anintegrated circuit, or on another layer, such as, but not limited to, apatterned layer forming an active circuit in an integrated circuit.

In conventional techniques, an increase in the partial volume occupiedby the porogen particles is accompanied by a substantial increment inthe number of interconnected pores and pore clusters. This is due to theinteraction between the conventional porogen particles and the sol-gelmaterial.

The present inventors unexpectedly discovered that the composition ofthe present embodiments allows for formation of a layer having voidswhich are optionally isolated and/or closed, even when the total volumeof the voids is several tens of percentage of the total volume of thelayer. The present inventors found that sol-gel precursors that aresuitable for dielectric layers of integrated circuit are chemicallycompatible with the nanoparticles of the present embodiments, in thesense that they are generally inert at the stage of cross-linking.

As used herein the term “void” refers to a discontinuity in the materialfrom which the porous layer is made, which discontinuity has a sizewhich is larger than the largest lattice constant of the layer.

Thus the composition of the present embodiments is advantageous bothfrom the standpoint of chemical compatibility between the nanoparticlesand the sol-gel precursor, and from the standpoint of maintaining thenanoparticles in their discrete form.

Reference is now made to FIG. 1 which is a flowchart diagram of a methodsuitable for forming a porous layer, according to some embodiments ofthe present invention. The method is particularly useful for forming alayer having a reduced dielectric constant.

The term “reduced dielectric constant” refers to a dielectric constant(relative to the dielectric constant of the vacuum) lower than thedielectric constant of SiO₂ (relative to the dielectric constant of thevacuum), when measured at the same conditions, to particularly the sametemperature and the same frequency.

A structure having a reduced dielectric constant is abbreviated hereinas a “low-k structure.”

It is to be understood that, unless otherwise defined, the operationsdescribed hereinbelow can be executed either contemporaneously orsequentially in many combinations or orders of execution. Specifically,the ordering of the flowchart diagrams is not to be considered aslimiting. For example, two or more operations, appearing in thefollowing description or in the flowchart diagrams in a particularorder, can be executed in a different order (e.g., a reverse order) orsubstantially contemporaneously. Additionally, several operationsdescribed below are optional and may not be executed.

The method begins at 10 and optionally and preferably proceeds to 11 atwhich a mixture of discrete organic nanoparticles in a medium isprovided. The nanoparticles can be received already in their discreteform, or they can be prepared by the method, using either a top-down orbottom-up technique as further detailed hereinabove. The method canreceive a previously prepared mixture. Alternatively, the method can mixthe nanoparticles in the medium. In various exemplary embodiments of theinvention the medium that at least partially prevents assembly of thenanoparticles into supramolecular or colloidal structures, as furtherdetailed hereinabove.

At 12 the method optionally and preferably dilutes a sol-gel precursorwith a component that that at least partially prevents assembly of thenanoparticles into supramolecular or colloidal structures, as furtherdetailed hereinabove. Preferably, the dilution is performed before,optionally less than 30 minutes before, the sol-gel precursor iscombined with the nanoparticles.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention both the mediumcontaining the mixture of the nanoparticles and the sol-gel precursorcontain the same component that at least partially prevents assembly. Invarious exemplary embodiments of the invention the method proceeds to 13at which the mixture of nanoparticles is mixed with the sol-gelprecursor to provide a composition useful for a sol-gel process.

Alternatively, operations 11-13 can be skipped and the method canreceive a previously prepared composition in liquid form useful for asol-gel process, wherein the to composition comprises at least a sol-gelprecursor and a mixture of discrete organic nanoparticles in a medium,as further detailed hereinabove.

The method continues to 14 in which a substrate is coated with theprepared or received composition.

The substrate can be a base substrate or a package substrate of anintegrated circuit, or it can be a patterned layer of an integratedcircuit wherein the pattern forms an active circuit area in theintegrated circuit.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention the coating is byspinning, as known in the art. For example, the composition can bedispensed on the substrate, e.g., at the center thereof, and thesubstrate can be placed on a spinner. Subsequently, the substrate isrotated to effect centrifugal forces that ensure a substantially uniformdistribution of the liquid composition on the surface of the substrate.Typically, but not necessarily the spinning process is executed at roomtemperature (e.g., about 25° C.) and atmospheric pressure (e.g., about101 kPa).

The method optionally and preferably continues to 15 at which thecomposition is dried. This can be achieved, for example, by heating thecoated substrate to a temperature above the boiling point of the solventand for a time-period which is sufficient to remove at least 95%, morepreferably at least 99%, more preferably substantially all the solvent.Typical temperatures for operation 15 are from about 100° C. to about300° C., and a typical time period is from about 30 minutes to about 120minutes. Other temperatures and time-periods are not excluded from thescope of the present invention.

The drying operation effects a sol-gel process. The components of thesol-gel precursor undergo hydrolysis and condensation reactions. Themolecular weight of the oxide species that are produced in the liquidcomposition (“sol”) during the condensation continuously increases incourse of heating, and links are formed thereamongst to form athree-dimensional network (“gel”).

The method of the present embodiments continues to 16 at which the driedcomposition, which is typically in a gel state, is treated to decomposethe nanoparticles.

In some embodiments of the present invention the decomposing includes athermal treatment which both decomposes the nanoparticles and solidifiesthe gel. The to employed temperature depends on the material from whichthe nanoparticles are formed. For example, the coated substrate can besubjected to a calcination process. Suitable temperatures fordecomposing the nanoparticles and solidify the gel are typically fromabout 300° C. to about 600° C. Other temperatures are not excluded fromthe scope of the present invention. A typical time-period for thethermal treatment is, without limitation, from about 30 minutes to about120 minutes.

In some embodiment, the decomposing includes applying optical radiation,such as, but not limited to, ultraviolet radiation which is known todecompose certain types of organic materials, particularly peptides,proteins and the like. In these embodiments, a further thermal treatmentis applied to solidify the gel, optionally and preferably subsequentlyto the radiation.

Once the nanoparticles are decomposed and the gel is solidified, thelocations within the gel that were occupied by the nanoparticles becomevacant and a solid layer having a distribution of voids is formed. Itwas found by the present inventors that the use of the nanoparticles ofthe present embodiments allows formation of isolated and closed voids inthe layer. In various exemplary embodiments of the invention at least70% or at least 80% or at least 90% of the voids are closed, and atleast 70% or at least 80% or at least 90% of the voids are isolated fromother voids.

Residual carbon molecules from the decomposed organic nanoparticlesoptionally sediment on the internal of the voids. This is advantageoussince the carbon makes the walls of the voids more hydrophobic.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the method proceeds to 17at which the internal walls of said voids are passivated, to make thewalls even more hydrophobic. For example, a hydrophobic primer such as,but not limited to, a hexamethyl disilazane (HDMS) oroctadecyltrichlorosilane or phenyltriethoxysilane can be applied to thesolidified layer, so as to form a thin hydrophobic layer (e.g., amonolayer) on the internal walls of the voids. For example, an HDMS gascan be applied in a vacuum oven.

The method ends at 18.

According to some embodiment of the present invention there is provideda method of forming a composition suitable to be used as modifiedprecursor in a sol-gel process. The method optionally and preferablycomprises executing operations 11, 12 to and 13 of FIG. 1, as furtherdetailed hereinabove.

According to some embodiment of the present invention there is provideda porous layer, which comprises a solidified sol-gel inorganic materialhaving a distribution of nanometric voids, wherein at least some of thenanometric voids are at least partially coated internally by carbonmolecules or a hydrophobic substance containing carbon. The porous layercan be fabricated, for example, by a sol-gel process employing thecomposition of the present embodiments. In a representative embodiment,selected operations of the method illustrated in FIG. 1 are executed forforming the porous layer.

As used herein, “nanometric void” refers to a void whose largestdimension i.e. less than 1 micron.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention the average size ofthe voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is less than 500 nm, morepreferably less than 100 nm, more preferably less than 50 nm, morepreferably less than 10 nm, more preferably less than 5 nm, e.g., fromabout 2 nm to about 5 nm or from about 2 nm to about 4 nm or from about2 nm to about 3 nm.

The average size of the voids can be estimated from an image of theporous layer (typically an electron microscope image). The number ofvoids in the image can be counted and the size of each void along itslargest dimension in the plane of the image can be measured. The averagesize of the voids can then be estimated as the ratio between the sum ofmeasured sizes and the number of voids.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention at least 70% or atleast 80% or at least 90% or at least 95% or at least 99% of the voidsare generally spherical.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention X % of the voids arecharacterized by an aspect ratio of at least 0.7, more preferably atleast 0.8 more preferably at least 0.9, e.g., 0.95 or 1, where X is atleast 70 or at least 80 or at least 90 or at least 90 or at least 99.

The porous layer of the present embodiments is optionally and preferablycharacterized by a dielectric constant which is less than 2.5 or lessthan 2.4 or less than 2.3 or less than 2.2 or less than 2.1 or less than2.0. In some embodiments of the present invention the variance in thesize of the voids over the layer is less than 2 nm² or less than 1 nm².

Reference is now made to FIG. 2 which is a schematic illustration of anintegrated circuit 20, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention. Integrated circuit 20, comprises a base substrate 22 and oneor more patterned layers 24 each of which function as an active circuitas known in the art of integrated circuits. Base substrate 22 andpatterned layer(s) 24 are separated from each other by one or moredielectric layers 26. At least one of the dielectric layers 26 is aporous layer which comprises a solidified sol-gel inorganic materialhaving a distribution of nanometric voids, wherein at least some of thenanometric voids are at least partially coated internally by carbonmolecules or a hydrophobic substance containing carbon, as furtherdetailed hereinabove.

Integrated circuit 20 can be implemented in a variety of electronicdevices, including, without limitation, image sensors, microprocessors,transmitters and receivers of electromagnetic radiations, non-volatilememories, controllers, implantable medical devices, and the like. It isexpected that during the life of a patent maturing from this applicationmany relevant electronic devices featuring integrated circuits will bedeveloped and the scope of the term electronic device is intended toinclude all such new technologies a priori.

As used herein the term “about” refers to ±10%.

The word “exemplary” is used herein to mean “serving as an example,instance or illustration.” Any embodiment described as “exemplary” isnot necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over otherembodiments and/or to exclude the incorporation of features from otherembodiments.

The word “optionally” is used herein to mean “is provided in someembodiments and not provided in other embodiments.” Any particularembodiment of the invention may include a plurality of “optional”features unless such features conflict.

The terms “comprises”, “comprising”, “includes”, “including”, “having”and their conjugates mean “including but not limited to”.

The term “consisting of” means “including and limited to”.

The term “consisting essentially of” means that the composition, methodor structure may include additional ingredients, steps and/or parts, butonly if the additional ingredients, steps and/or parts do not materiallyalter the basic and novel characteristics of the claimed composition,method or structure.

As used herein, the singular form “a”, “an” and “the” include pluralreferences unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example,the term “a compound” or “at least one compound” may include a pluralityof compounds, including mixtures thereof.

Throughout this application, various embodiments of this invention maybe presented in a range format. It should be understood that thedescription in range format is merely for convenience and brevity andshould not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of theinvention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be consideredto have specifically disclosed all the possible subranges as well asindividual numerical values within that range. For example, descriptionof a range such as from 1 to 6 should be considered to have specificallydisclosed subranges such as from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 5, from2 to 4, from 2 to 6, from 3 to 6 etc., as well as individual numberswithin that range, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This appliesregardless of the breadth of the range.

Whenever a numerical range is indicated herein, it is meant to includeany cited numeral (fractional or integral) within the indicated range.The phrases “ranging/ranges between” a first indicate number and asecond indicate number and “ranging/ranges from” a first indicate number“to” a second indicate number are used herein interchangeably and aremeant to include the first and second indicated numbers and all thefractional and integral numerals therebetween.

It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, forclarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also beprovided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, variousfeatures of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in thecontext of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or inany suitable subcombination or as suitable in any other describedembodiment of the invention. Certain features described in the contextof various embodiments are not to be considered essential features ofthose embodiments, unless the embodiment is inoperative without thoseelements.

Various embodiments and aspects of the present invention as delineatedhereinabove and as claimed in the claims section below find experimentalsupport in the following examples.

EXAMPLES

Reference is now made to the following examples, which together with theabove descriptions illustrate some embodiments of the invention in a nonlimiting fashion.

Example 1

A low-k dielectric layer according to some embodiments of the presentinvention can be employed in an integrated circuit, such as, but notlimited to, an image sensor, as illustrated in FIG. 3, in which thelower panel illustrates a perspective view and the upper panelillustrates a cross-sectional view of the integrated circuit.

The dielectric layer is typically utilized between conductive and/orsemiconductive patterned layers of an integrated circuit device. Thevoids in the dielectric layer are preferable generally spherical with adiameter D from about 1 nm to about to 500 nm. The total volume of thevoids makes up from about 50% to about 95% of the total volume of thedielectric layer.

Example 2

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of an exemplified method suitable forforming a porous layer, according to some embodiments of the presentinvention. The starting material is optionally and preferablyhigh-purity grade tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS). It is firstlyhydrolyzed and then polymerized according to reactions:

≡Si—O—C₂H₅+H₂O

≡Si—OH+C₂H₅OH

and

≡Si—O—C₂H₅+≡Si—OH

≡Si—O—Si≡+C₂H₅OH,

To perform hydrolyzation, about 20 ml of isopropanol can be added toabout 10 ml of TEOS (FIG. 4, at 100). HCl can then be added to water toobtain about 5 mmol concentration solution and about 1 ml of theobtained HCl solution can be mixed with about 10 ml of isopropanol (FIG.4, at 200). The obtained acid catalyst can then be added to acceleratethe hydrolysis reactions of the silicate.

The two parts containing isopropanol are optionally and preferably mixedtogether, for example, by intensive stirring stage (FIG. 4, at 300). Thetemperature can to be increased to about 82-83° C. (the boiling ofisopropanol starts at 82° C.; otherwise

TEOS is not mixed with water; HCl acts as a catalyst). The correspondingreaction is:

nSi(OC₂H₅)₄+2nH₂O→nSiO₂+4nC₂H₅OH.

This forms a spin-on glass (SOG) which is a transparent “sol” of organicsolvents (ethanol and isopropanol) containing Si—O network polymers.

The SOG is optionally and preferably cooled to room temperature,preferably in a closed vessel so as not to absorb water vapors from theair Immediately before the spinning, the SOG is optionally andpreferably diluted by methanol (FIG. 4, at 500), preferably by stiffing,and preliminary mixed with a medium, e.g., methanol containingnanoparticles, such as, but not limited to, peptide nanoparticles (FIG.4, at 400). In the medium, the volume of the particles can be about 10ml, and the volume of the methanol can be about 20 ml.

The methanol solvent at least partially prevents assembly of the peptidenanoparticles into supramolecular or colloidal structures. At thisstage, a composition comprising the sol-gel precursor TEOS and peptidenanospheres (typical size 2-3 nm) is obtained.

The composition can then be spin-coated on a substrate, e.g., an 8″silicon wafer (FIG. 4, at 600). A typical spinning speed is from about3000 to about 10000 rev/min Centrifugal draining during the spinningprocess allows to coat the surface generally uniformly. The typicalthickness of the obtained film is from about 1 μm to about 2 μm.

The coated wafer can then be baked, e.g., at a temperature of about 200°C. for about 1 hour (FIG. 4, at 700). Typically, a hot plate can be usedfor the baking. The baking continues the hydrolysis and condensation ofthe precursor and removes the solvents from the fabricated film. Afterthe bake, a polymerized layer having therein peptide nanospheres isobtained. The separated positions of the particles are fixed in spaceduring the baking due to the very high viscosity of the obtained layer.

The obtained substrate can then be further baked to form a porous layer(FIG. 4, at 800). The temperature for operation 800 is selected toensure that the peptide porogen is decomposed and the gaseous productsof the reaction diffuse out from the porous film. A suitable temperaturelevel is about 400° C.

An interconnected structure in the glass matrix provides continuouspathways for the organic residuals to escape during the low temperaturebaking 700. At the high to temperature baking 800 part of the pathwaysare closed and it is more difficult for the decomposed peptide moleculesto escape from the forming porous oxide matrix. At this stage, the filmis comprised of a hard matrix of silicon dioxide with lessinterconnected system of pores. Some of the carbon that originated fromthe decomposition of peptide spheres, interacts with the walls of thesilicon dioxide. This is advantageous since it eliminates part of theresidual hydrogen containing complexes. The carbon related bonds havelower polarizability than silicon bonds and thus contribute to thelowering of k. Another advantage is that this interaction reduces theextent of moisture absorption by the porous layer.

As an additional countermeasure against moisture absorption, a furthertreatment in HMDS vapors at temperatures of from about 100° C. to about250° C. can be employed (FIG. 4 at 900). Such a treatment substitutesthe polar Si—OH bonds by non-polar Si—CH3 bonds and thus furthersuppresses adsorption of water radicals.

Although the invention has been described in conjunction with specificembodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modificationsand variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art.Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives,modifications and variations that fall within the spirit and broad scopeof the appended claims.

All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in thisspecification are herein incorporated in their entirety by referenceinto the specification, to the same extent as if each individualpublication, patent or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference. Inaddition, citation or identification of any reference in thisapplication shall not be construed as an admission that such referenceis available as prior art to the present invention. To the extent thatsection headings are used, they should not be construed as necessarilylimiting.

1. A porous layer, comprising a solidified sol-gel inorganic materialhaving a distribution of nanometric voids, wherein at least some ofnanometric voids are at least partially coated internally by carbon or ahydrophobic substance containing carbon.
 2. An integrated circuit,comprising at least one dielectric layer, wherein the dielectric layeris the porous layer according to claim
 1. 3. The porous layer accordingto claim 1, wherein at least 70% of said voids are closed.
 4. The porouslayer according to claim 1, wherein at least 70% of said voids areisolated from other voids.
 5. The porous layer according to claim 1,wherein at least 80% of said nanometric voids are generally spherical.6. The porous layer according to claim 1, wherein an average size ofsaid nanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is less than10 nm.
 7. The porous layer according to claim 1, wherein an average sizeof said nanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, is lessthan 5 nm.
 8. The porous layer according to claim 1, wherein an averagesize of said nanometric voids, along a largest dimension thereof, isfrom about 2 nm to about 5 nm.
 9. The porous layer according to claim 1,wherein a variance in a size of said nanometric voids, along a largestdimension thereof, is less than 2 nm².
 10. The porous layer according toclaim 1, wherein the porous layer characterized by a dielectric constantwhich is less than 2.5.
 11. A composition, comprising a sol-gelprecursor and a mixture of discrete nanoparticles of biological materialin a medium that at least partially prevents assembly of saidnanoparticles into supramolecular or colloidal structures.
 12. A methodof forming a porous layer, comprising: coating a substrate with thecomposition of claim 11; drying said composition; and treating saiddried composition so as to decompose said nanoparticles, thereby formingvoids in said dried composition.
 13. The method according to claim 12,wherein said treating comprises applying a thermal treatment.
 14. Themethod according to claim 13, wherein said thermal treatment comprisescalcination.
 15. The method according to claim 12, wherein said treatingcomprises applying optical radiation.
 16. The method according to claim15, wherein said optical radiation is ultraviolet radiation.
 17. Themethod according to claim 12, further comprising passivating internalwalls of said voids such that said walls are hydrophobic.
 18. The methodaccording to claim 12, further comprising preparing said composition.19. The method according to claim 18, wherein said preparing comprisesmixing said mixture with a solution containing said sol-gel precursor.20. The method according to claim 19, wherein said solution comprises atleast one component selected for at least partially preventing saidassembly.
 21. The method according to claim 20, wherein said at leastone component comprises a polar organic solvent.
 22. The compositionaccording to claim 11, wherein at least 70% of said discretenanoparticles are generally spherical.
 23. The composition according toclaim 11, wherein a largest dimension of at least 70% of said discretenanoparticles is less than 500 nm.
 24. The composition according toclaim 11, wherein a largest dimension of at least 70% of said discretenanoparticles is less than 100 nm.
 25. The composition according toclaim 11, wherein a largest dimension of at least 70% of said discretenanoparticles is less than 5 nm.
 26. The composition according to claim11, wherein said discrete nanoparticles comprise peptide nanoparticles.27. The composition according to claim 11, wherein said discretenanoparticles comprise protein nanoparticles.
 28. The compositionaccording to claim 11, wherein said discrete nanoparticles compriseviruses.
 29. The composition according to claim 11, wherein saiddiscrete nanoparticles comprise ferritin.
 30. The composition accordingto claim 11, wherein a concentration of said discrete nanoparticles inthe composition is from about 50% to about 95% by volume.
 31. Thecomposition according to claim 11, wherein said sol-gel precursor is anorthosilicate sol-gel precursor.
 32. The composition according to claim31, wherein said silicate sol-gel precursor comprisestetraethylorthosilicate.
 33. The composition according to claim 11,wherein said sol-gel precursor comprises a silsesquioxane.
 34. Thecomposition according to claim 33, wherein said silsesquioxane isselected from the group consisting of a hydrogen silsesquioxane, amethyl silsesquioxane, and a silsesquioxane copolymer.